|
After his death in 1896, the will of Swedish industrialist Alfred Nobel established the Nobel Prizes. Nobel's will specified that annual prizes are to be awarded for service to humanity in the fields of physics, chemistry, physiology or medicine, literature, and peace. Similarly, the Bank of Sweden Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel is awarded along with the Nobel Prizes. Since the first award in 1901, the prizes have occasionally engendered criticism〔(Nobel population 1901–50: anatomy of a scientific elite ). 5 November 2001. physicsworld.com. Retrieved 20 March 2011.〕 and controversy.〔"(A Nobel calling: 100 years of controversy )", The Independent, 14 October 2005.〕 Nobel sought to reward "those who, during the preceding year, shall have conferred the greatest benefit on mankind". One prize, he stated, should be given "to the person who shall have made the most important 'discovery' or 'invention' within the field of physics". Awards committees have historically rewarded discoveries over inventions: 77% of Nobel Prizes in physics have been given to discoveries, compared with only 23% to inventions. In addition, the scientific prizes typically reward contributions over an entire career rather than a single year. No Nobel Prize was established for mathematics and many other scientific and cultural fields. An early theory that jealousy led Nobel to omit a prize to mathematician Gösta Mittag-Leffler was refuted because of timing inaccuracies. Another possibility is that Nobel did not consider mathematics as a "practical" discipline. Both the Fields Medal and the Abel Prize have been described as the "Nobel Prize of mathematics".〔(【引用サイトリンク】title=Fields Medal – from Wolfram MathWorld )〕 The most notorious controversies have been over prizes for Literature,〔(Controversial Turkish Writer Wins Nobel Prize – Radio Free Europe / Radio Liberty 2011 ). Rferl.org (12 October 2006). Retrieved 20 March 2011.〕〔(First Arab Nobel Prize Winner in Literature Dies at 94 – International News|News of the World|Middle East News|Europe News ). FOXNews.com (30 August 2006). Retrieved 20 March 2011.〕〔Amartya Sen (28 August 2001) (Tagore and His India ). nobelprize.org〕 Peace and Economics.〔Samuel Brittan (19 December 2003) "(The not so noble Nobel Prize )", ''Financial Times''.〕〔Burton Feldman (2000) ''The Nobel Prize: A History of Genius, Controversy and Prestige'', Arcade Publishing, ISBN 1-55970-537-X〕 Beyond disputes over which contributor's work was more worthy, critics most often discerned political bias and Eurocentrism in the result. The interpretation of Nobel's original words concerning the Literature prize has also undergone repeated revisions. ==Chemistry== ;2008 The 2008 prize was awarded to Osamu Shimomura, Martin Chalfie and Roger Y. Tsien for their work on green fluorescent protein or GFP. However, Douglas Prasher was the first to clone the GFP gene and suggested its use as a biological tracer. Martin Chalfie stated, "Douglas Prasher's work was critical and essential for the work we did in our lab. They could've easily given the prize to Douglas and the other two and left me out." Prasher's accomplishments were not recognized, and he eventually found himself out of a science career. When the Nobel was awarded in 2008, Prasher was working as a courtesy shuttle bus driver in Huntsville, Alabama. Roger Tsien had advocated for Prasher from the beginning, even offering him a job when Prasher's academic career stalled. Eventually, Prasher accepted the offer and moved in 2013 to UCSD to join Tsien's lab.〔Bob Grant, "What Ever Happened to Douglas Prasher?" February 26, 2013. The Scientist.〕 ;2007 Gerhard Ertl, who received the entire 2007 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for his studies of the catalytic effects of metal surfaces, has expressed surprise〔(A profile of Gabor Somorjai in C&E News )〕 and disappointment〔("Birthday Boy Gets a Nobel" from Science magazine )〕 that Gabor Somorjai, a foundational pioneer in modern surface science and catalysis, did not get to share the prize with him. Somorjai and Ertl had previously shared the Wolf Prize for Chemistry in 1998. The Nobel Prize committee's decision to exclude Somorjai was criticized in the surface-science community〔("Surface chemistry wins Nobel Prize" from the Royal Society of Chemistry )〕 and remains mysterious. ;1993 The 1993 prize credited Kary Mullis with the development of the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) method. This is a central technique in molecular biology which allows for the amplification of specified DNA sequences. However, others claimed that Norwegian scientist Kjell Kleppe, together with 1968 Nobel Prize laureate H. Gobind Khorana, had an earlier and better claim to the discovery dating from 1969. Mullis' co-workers at that time denied that he was solely responsible for the idea of using Taq polymerase in the PCR process. Rabinow raised the issue of whether or not Mullis "invented" PCR or "merely" came up with the concept of it.〔Rabinow P "Making PCR: A Story of Biotechnology" University of Chicago Press (1996) ISBN 0-226-70147-6〕 However, Khudyakov and Howard Fields claimed "the full potential (PCR ) was not realized" until Mullis' work in 1983. ;1961 The 1961 prize for carbon assimilation in plants awarded to Melvin Calvin was controversial because it ignored the contributions of Andrew Benson and James Bassham. While originally named the Calvin cycle, many biologists and botanists now refer to the Calvin-Benson, Benson-Calvin, or Calvin-Benson-Bassham (CBB) cycle. Three decades after winning the Nobel, Calvin published an autobiography titled "Following the trail of light" about his scientific journey which didn't mention Benson. ;Others * Henry Eyring (1901–1981) allegedly failed to receive the prize because of his Mormon faith.〔''Matters of Conscience: Conversations With Sterling M. McMurrin on Philosophy, Education, and Religion'' by Sterling M. McMurrin & L. Jackson Newell, Signature Books, 1996〕 (It is also possible that the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences did not understand Eyring's theory until it was too late to award him the Nobel; the academy awarded him the Berzelius Medal in 1977 as partial compensation.〔"(The Nobel Prize in Chemistry: The Development of Modern Chemistry )". Nobelprize.org. Retrieved 12 June 2010.〕) * Dmitri Mendeleyev, who originated the periodic table of the elements, never received a Nobel Prize. He completed his first periodic table in 1869. However, a year earlier, another chemist, Julius Lothar Meyer, had reported a somewhat similar table. In 1866, John Alexander Reina Newlands, presented a paper that first proposed a periodic law. However, none of these tables were correct—the 19th century tables arranged the elements in order of increasing atomic weight (or atomic mass). It was left to Henry Moseley to base the periodic table on the atomic number (the number of protons). Mendeleyev died in 1907, six years after the first Nobel Prizes were awarded. He came within one vote of winning in 1906, but died the next year. Hargittai claimed that Mendeleyev's omission was due to behind-the-scenes machinations of one dissenter on the Nobel Committee who disagreed with his work. * The decision to award the Nobel Prize in Chemistry to Fritz Haber in 1918 was, and still remains, controversial because of Haber's involvement in the development of poison gasses for warfare during World War I.〔Between Genius and Genocide: The Tragedy of Fritz Haber, Father of Chemical Warfare by Daniel Charles〕 抄文引用元・出典: フリー百科事典『 ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』 ■ウィキペディアで「Nobel Prize controversies」の詳細全文を読む スポンサード リンク
|